The vaccine against COVID-19 and its animal origin: risks and environmental consequences that you must take into account before receiving it

After the first recorded outbreak of SARS-COV-2, at the end of last year, many theories about its origin spread around the world. Some suspected biological weapons, others plagues sent by deities, among many other theories that we could include under the label of "conspiracy." The consensus among the scientific community is that the outbreak could have been caused by some kind of contact between humans and wild animal species, or perhaps by eating their meat.

The theory that COVID was transmitted to a human by consuming bat soup in the Chinese province of Wuhan, has gone around the world, and is widely accepted. Although it is true that there is uncertainty about its specific origin, it is certain that SARS-COV-2 is one of many emerging infectious diseases that are zoonotic, which means that they are transmitted naturally from animals to humans [1].

Contact between humans and wildlife crowded together in unsanitary conditions, or ingesting them, has been the vehicle by which the virus was transmitted to humans.

An investigation into SARS-COV-2 found the virus strain in bats and pangolins. Taking into account that these animals are nocturnal, it can be assumed that humans and wild animals came into contact due to the collection of these wild species in the natural habitat in order to satisfy anthropogenic needs [2].

Pangolins (on the left) are the only mammals with scales. They are illegally trafficked throughout Asia for consumption as an exotic dish and for the preparation of traditional medicine. Image retrieved from panamericana.pe [3].

Throughout the history of humanity, some formidable and indomitable species have caused respect, fear and fascination among humans, due to their physical strength, beauty, or qualities attributed to them. Animals can also be symbols that represent certain values, abilities, and even socioeconomic status.

Despite the fact that wild animals are admired, in some cultures it is common to eat their meat, or wear their skins in order to gain their virtues. Animals like tigers, elephants, lions, crocodiles, sharks, turtles, and many other species are coveted for these reasons.

Taxidermy of endangered species seized by UK Border Force officers at the Queen's Warehouse. November 14, 2013, in London, England. Photo credit: Oli Scarff/Getty Images. Image retrieved from futurity.org [4].

International wildlife trade

According to the publication "Coronavirus Emerged from Global Wildlife Trade," written by Professor George Wittemyer, a biologist at Colorado State University:

Poaching and trade in animals and animal parts for food, medicine and other uses is estimated to be worth close to $20 billion annually in China alone, which is the world's largest market for such products. (...) [in fact,] In China, the sale and consumption of wild animals are culturally deeply rooted and represent an influential economic sector. The Chinese authorities see them as a key income generator for impoverished rural communities, and have [in the past] promoted national policies that encourage trade despite its risks [5].

Due to the economic growth of China (as well as other countries in Asia), the wealthy middle class has increased in number, and it is precisely this social stratum that is most likely to consume products derived from wild animals to consume them in dishes, or medicines [6].

According to biologist George Wittemyer, the demand for elephant ivory has caused the deaths of more than 100,000 elephants in the last 15 years. Photo taken by Alex Hofford, EPA/ CORBIS. Image retrieved from National Geographic [7].

In addition to the illegal trade in wildlife, the legal trade also plays an important role in the ongoing process of biodiversity loss. A report published on December 10 of this year, and prepared by the Intergovernmental Platform for Science and Policy on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES), reveals that legal trade has multiplied in the last three decades, and has become highly unsustainable.

According to the report, the international legal trade in wildlife has increased 500% in value since 2005, and 2,000% since the 1980s. On the other hand, the estimated value of the illegal trade (between 7 and 23 billion USD per year), is equivalent to almost 25% of the value of the legal market [8].

The same report indicates that wildlife consumption patterns vary markedly between countries. North America, Europe, and some parts of Asia were net importers and consumers; while, on the other hand, countries in South America, Africa, Southeast Asia, and Oceania tended to be net suppliers, or had large domestic trade.

In terms of legal wildlife trade, the European Union and the United States are the main consumers and importers. The US has imported between 10 and 20 million wild animals each year, mainly for the pet trade[9].

What are the consequences of unsustainable trade in wildlife species?

One of the main reasons why humanity has made some species disappear, and threatens others, is the fight against "hostile" nature, and the search for comfort. The urban sprawl has been spreading throughout the world, while deforestation has become more acute. Urbanization, in addition to destroying ecosystems, brings with it the possibility (and the need) to take advantage of the natural resources that surround man. The eventual disappearance of some species can destabilize entire ecosystems, and cause the extinction of other species, to the degree of affecting the natural cycles of water, or hydrogen, for example.

Development tends to simplify ecosystems and reduce species diversity, and once species go extinct, they are not renewable. The loss of plant and animal species can severely limit the options for future generations.

In addition to the loss of biodiversity, it is necessary to emphasize the animal abuse to which hundreds of exotic species are subjected. In terms of illegal trafficking, it is common for some exotic pets to be transported in overcrowded conditions, with little oxygen, to be inadequately fed, to suffer from dehydration, and even physical violence.

The case of shark finning is sadly famous; this practice consists of removing the sharks' fins while they are still alive. It is common for the rest of the shark's body to be thrown back into the sea after the limbs have been severed. The fishermen choose to get rid of the trunk of some species highly protected by International Agreements; once the fins are severed, it is difficult to determine to which species they belong at the moment of disembarking, and in this way they seek to avoid sanctions when they touch the port. Finning is a very lucrative practice, since in China (and other Asian countries) there is a high demand for fins, which are usually served in soup during special celebrations (such as weddings). This dish is considered gourmet. Fins can be found in a wide range of derived products, such as vitamins, for example. Image retrieved from Sea Save.org [10].

Cases of animal abuse can also occur in the legal wildlife trade. There are wildlife farms, which are dedicated to the legal trade of living beings. However, there have been cases in which specimens of reproductive age are removed from their natural habitat to be cloistered in hatcheries, and later sell their offspring.

This photo shows a group of pangolins confiscated from smugglers in Indonesia (June 14, 2017). The pangolin is the most trafficked mammal in the world. It is a creature threatened with extinction. They are generally taken from their natural habitat -tropical lands- in Sub-Saharan Africa, India and Southeast Asia. They are mostly in demand in Chinese markets, where their meat is considered a delicacy, and their scales are used to make medicines. Recently, their commercialization has set off alarms, since they are a possible source of future strains of the coronavirus. Image retrieved from The World [11]. Credits: Binsar Bakkara/AP.

International wildlife trade and health risks

Ecosystems are complex systems in dynamic equilibrium that regulate themselves. All species, whether animal or vegetable; Microorganisms or gigantic creatures are closely related and permanently interact in dynamics of mutualistic symbiosis, commensalism, and parasitism. The loss of biodiversity has various impacts on the dynamics of ecosystems, and of planet earth, considered as a single interconnected system.

The disappearance of some species(s) can bring the risk of zoonotic contagion of diseases, because, as Dr. Lorena Haurigot points out:

Animals have natural wild cycles in their diseases, and act as a genetic reservoir for their pathogens, that is, they can be carriers of a disease without presenting symptoms. The species that host the pathogens have evolved together with them, generating immunity, in a balance that allows both parties to survive. These complex interactions mean that all species are interconnected, regulating the populations and abundance of each of them as a whole. This dynamic balance within a biodiverse ecosystem is one of the factors that protects us, by diluting the impact of emerging infectious diseases among different organisms and species, making it difficult for them to reach humans, either due to the increase in the number of species in the contagion chain or due to the natural firewall effect that causes high genetic diversity [12].

It should be noted that SARS-COV-2 is not the first disease transmitted to people through zoonoses. The IPBES Intergovernmental Platform estimates that every year 700,000 people die from zoonoses. On the other hand, according to a report by the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP), 75% of emerging infectious diseases in recent years, such as Ebola, Zika, SARS, MERS, avian flu, H1N1 flu and even AIDS, are of animal origin. The report adds that, on average, there is an infectious disease emerging in humans every four months; it also warned of future health emergencies caused by zoonoses [13].

In order to prevent international trade in wildlife species from being unsustainable, it is regulated by the CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora. CITES subjects international trade in specimens of certain species to certain controls. Any import, export, re-export or introduction from the sea of species covered by the Convention must be authorized through a licensing system. Each State party to the Convention must designate one or more Management Authorities to be in charge of administering the licensing system, and one or more Scientific Authorities to provide advice on the effects of trade on the status of the species. The species covered by CITES are included in three Appendices, depending on the degree of protection they need [14].

However, there are various problems in applying the Convention, little law enforcement capacity in some countries, or difficulties in identifying to which species some parts or derivatives of wildlife belong. Simultaneous to the legal and regulated trade, the illegal trade in wildlife develops, which undermines the efforts to ensure that extractive exploitation does not exceed the levels of sustainability previously established by the scientific authorities of each member country.

A number of diverse causes have made the international wildlife trade a lucrative business, and a focus for zoonotic diseases. The international community tries to put a stop to the problems that arise from this trade. But the damage has already been done, and many other consequences are yet to come.

Having said the above, it is paradoxical to know that the vaccine that could put an end to the global health emergency in which we find ourselves, has a chemical compound that is derived from the liver of sharks, another species of wildlife threatened with extinction.

Could manufacturing vaccines against COVID threaten the world's sharks?

Squalene is extracted from shark liver oil, a substance that is used as an adjuvant in medicines, that is, as an ingredient that increases the effectiveness of a vaccine by creating a stronger immune response.

Currently, some shark squalene-containing adjuvants are used in common influenza vaccines, and contain viral proteins, parts of the virus, or inactivated virus. So far, five of the dozens of COVID-19 vaccines in development also contain squalene. According to the World Health Organization, Pfizer and Moderna vaccines do not contain squalene [15].

British pharmaceutical giant GlaxoSmithKline (GSK) has announced that it will manufacture one billion doses of the adjuvant for potential use in coronavirus vaccines[16]. The possibility of billions of vaccine doses containing squalene appalls wildlife advocates, as at least a third of the world's shark species are threatened with extinction.

Sharks are highly vulnerable to fishing mortality. Whether in targeted fisheries for sharks, or as bycatch species, the removal of these top predators is of concern.

There is a high demand for shark fins in Asia, while the meat is commonly eaten in Europe and South America. In addition to this, the oil from their livers, their teeth and jaws are products available in the markets of the world. In fact, squalene is used to make makeup, facial creams, and other cosmetic products [17].

The decline in shark populations is worrisome for a number of reasons. One of the most important is that sharks perform several functions in their ecosystems; They have a role as top predators, since being the largest species, they significantly affect the population size of prey species, and the structure and composition of species in the lower trophic levels of the marine ecosystem. Removal can have a considerable and unpredictable effect at the ecosystem level, on species composition and diversity [18].

An illustrative case of what happens when shark populations decrease is the following:

Cases have been recorded where the extraction of tiger sharks (Galeocerdo cuvier) in a tropical ecosystem has resulted in a decline in the numbers of important commercial species of bony fish, such as tuna, despite the fact that they are not direct prey for these sharks. The decline in commercial species was caused by increases in the populations of other predators that were previously controlled by tiger sharks [19].

In addition to the ecological role that sharks play in their environments, the importance of sharks is also socioeconomic. The exploitation (extractive and non-extractive) of sharks is closely related to the livelihoods, well-being and cultural identity of many coastal communities. Unfortunately, sharks are vulnerable to overfishing because they have low fecundity, a long period of sexual maturation, and a long gestation period.

There are two known non-shark sources of squalene. A semi-synthetic pathway has been developed that begins with the fermentation of sugar. Squalene can also be extracted and purified from the remains of olive oil refining.

Both methods have made inroads in the cosmetics industry, but neither has entered the more regulated pharmaceutical supply chain. As far as scientists can tell, almost all plants and animals produce squalene, as it is a precursor to sterols, like cholesterol and steroids. It's even in sebum, the oily substance that makes your nose shine [20].

According to Fabienne Rossier, the President of the Shark Mission association, laboratories are focusing more on shark squalene because it is easier to extract from an animal. To get the same amount of olive oil, for example, it takes seven times as long [21].

However, with respect to vaccines against COVID, it is necessary to point out that priority should not be given to the development of vaccines made with shark derivatives, since it is irresponsible to make the cure against the pandemic depend on a finite natural resource, and it must be taken into account that when new people are born, they must also be vaccinated. In addition, the role of sharks is paramount in the largest lung in the world: the sea, where the greatest amount of oxygen on our planet is produced.

It is true that the health crisis created by SARS-COV-2 has turned the lives of people around the world upside down. We have learned many lessons from this event. However, we are (ecologically speaking) at a point of no return, in which action is necessary to try to stop the processes that threaten the survival of the human race, and of ecosystems.

The current pandemic is, in fact, the result of a series of collective decisions that have damaged, and continue to damage, other living beings, ecosystems, our cities, and even our own bodies. Living unsustainably has brought us to this scenario, which seems to have come out of some science fiction story.

Taking all of the above into account, there is only one last thought to be made: in addition to rejecting vaccines made with shark derivatives, what else can you do to stop the deterioration of our home, planet earth?